Migration Towards the Brave New World essays

Movement Towards the Brave New World expositions Since the start of the Industrial Revolution in England, human culture has needed to battle to adjust to new innovation. There is a move from conventional society to a cutting edge one. Inside the most recent ten years we have seen huge advances in science and innovation, and we are turning out to be increasingly more socially subject to it. In the Brave New World, Huxley expresses that we are moving toward Utopia substantially more quickly than anybody had ever envisioned. Its objective is accomplishing joy by surrendering science, workmanship, religion and different things we value in our reality. It is a coldhearted society constrained by innovation where individuals are created on sequential construction system. His prophetic components of individuals being adapted, the worries for the earth, significance of hereditary designing and multiplication, and our physical and mental improvement has now been one of the main considerations that the administrations, organizations and instr uctive establishments are abusing today. We are subliminally moving to this organization of similarity, and Brave New World is a reminder from our fixations of normalization socially, financially and strategically. The story occurred in A.F (After Ford) 632, this is 632years after Ford has discharged the main T-passage. Huxley utilized After Fordto show its incredible headway in making vehicles as an organization throughout the years. In 1932, Huxley acquainted Brave New World with show his extraordinary worry of the Western human advancement. He saw that during the 1900s there was a sensational monetary change in various nations, where the wholesalers are being dispensed with, and makers selling legitimately to the buyers. For instance, around then Ford makes vehicles and even sells them. They control who and where they sell. Innovation and transportation was expanding immensely, which caused more and greater manufacturing plants, large scale productions (eg. autos), and progressively produced products. There were more volumes of exchange ... <!

Gothic Style in Britain Essay Example for Free

Gothic Style in Britain Essay Gothic style has been suffering dad of building structure in Britain. Its advancement was intricate and contradictive as it offers exceptional vision of structures, shapes and edges. All things considered, the style has discovered its acknowledgment. Typically, on recognizes four significant formative phases of gothic style: Norman Gothic dated 1066-1200; Early English Gothic dated 1200-1275; Decorated Gothic dated 1275-1375; and, at last, Perpendicular Gothic dated 1375-1530. The term ‘gothic’ began in France and was regularly alluded to as the way of thinking of engineering. Talking about attributes of gothic style, it is important to concede solid vertical lines, negligible divider spaces, high vaulted roofs, buttressed dividers and pointed entryway openings(Ross 2005). Just because British designers got inspired by gothic style during the Norman Gothic time frame or, at the end of the day, during the Norman Conquest. That period breathed life into Gothic style. By the by, during that period British style was comparable tot cap of the rest in the Europe and it hasn’t yet discovered distinctive character. Structures of structures were transitional the same number of them were still given thick wharfs and adjusted windows which were characteristic to Romanesque style. Enrichment and vaulting were basic and minimal indication of expound stonework was watched. All things considered, that period was the establishment of unique British gothic style being so well known even today. Renowned instances of that period are Wells Cathedral, Durham Cathedral and Ely Cathedral(Mahoney 1995). During the Early English time frame English modelers had figured out how to really adjust idiosyncrasies of gothic style. All things considered, that period was called ‘Lancet’ because of pointed lancet windows. Extents were still wonderfully straightforward, just as the structures were as yet stark. The central matters of early gothic style were lancet windows, thin towers, restricted shafts, and quadripartite ribbings in vaults. The most popular case of early gothic style can be seen at Salisbury Cathedral(Frankl 1962). The third phase of gothic advancement was Decorated Gothic period being described by whimsical tracery and window ornamentation. New component was that windows got more extensive than lancet ones. Creation of flying brace contributed essentially advancement of gothic style as it got conceivable to give augmenting or reducing in divider zones normally. Besides, vaulting methods improved and was a lot of help in supporting load off the dividers. The divider turned out to be minimal more than sells with beautified window openings. During that period draftsmen got intrigued by stone design which was shifted and rich. In addition, window glass turned out to be increasingly brilliant and clear. Plans were set apart by stone carvings and works of art. One of the acclaimed instances of Decorated Period is Exeter Cathedral(Harvey 1990). At long last, Perpendicular period was described by solid vertical lines in divider framing and window tracery. The style turned out to be progressively useful. Flying support was given enriching highlights and vaults were intricate fan shapes. English towers became designed intricately †they got enormous and ‘traceried bug catching networks of stone like lace’. Recognizing highlights of that period were least divider space which involved the watcher with the sentiment of extensive size and light. Lords College Chape and Henry VII’s house of prayer at Westminster Abbey were worked in Perpendicular style(Ross 2005). It is important to underline that gothic style never truly passed on in Britain after the medieval period. During seventeenth and eighteenth hundreds of years gothic styles was as yet present in spite of fame of traditional topics which were administered uniquely by design. For instance, gothic components were added to Christopher Wren’s London places of worship to make them look more established. Toward the finish of the eighteenth century Batty Langley opened school of romanticized Gothic engineering which became well known structure of household structures. At long last, in the start of the nineteenth century gothic style was declared to be progressively reasonable to college structures and chapels: King’s College and Bridge of Sighs at John’s college(Frankl 1962). Reference index Frankl, Paul. (1962) Gothic Architecture. Baltimore, Penquin Books. Harvey, John. (1950) The Gothic World, 1100-1600: A Survey of Architecture and Art. London, B. T. Batsford. Mahoney, Kathleen. (1995) Gothic Style. UK, Harry N. Abrams. Ross, David. (2005) Gothic Architecture in England [Internet]. Accessible from: http://www. britainexpress. com/History/Gothic-engineering. htm [Accessed 14 February 2008].

Describe The Four Types Of Solid Structures Environmental Sciences Essay

Portray The Four Types Of Solid Structures Environmental Sciences Essay There are three types of substances exist: fluid, strong and gas in which strong is one of the significant condition of issue. The strong structure bonds the iotas together by various synthetic physical fascination. Substance bonds are the aftereffect of associations of electrons by different powers of fascination. This fascination can hold molecules together in a steady course of action. Iotas may move or offer particles to frame atoms and mixes. At the point when molecules bond together by synthetic bonds, they will turn out to be increasingly steady. Various sorts of substance bonds decide solids properties, for example, dissolving point, conductivity and solvency (Lister and Renshaw, 2000). Electron moving structure ionic bonds while electron sharing and joining particles structure covalent bonds. Linus Pauling thought of a scale, an incentive for every component called the electronegativity (E.N.) esteem. Every component has diverse want needing, capacity to draw in electrons. The solid electron attractions were given high qualities and a few particles have exceptionally low capacity to pull in were given a low worth. These qualities are relative-correlation esteems and have no units. The estimation of distinction electronegativity between two particles under 1.8 are characterized as covalent bonds while the estimation of contrast electronegativity between two iotas more than 2.0 are characterized as ionic bonds. This exposition will depict four kinds of strong structures: ionic and metallic which contains of unit cell, monster covalent which is held by system and straightforward atomic which are little particles with powerless powers of fascination. Ionic Structure Above all else, ionic holding generally exists in gem strong structures. Ionic holding electrons are moved from mental molecules to non-metal particles which bring about every particle acquiring a full external shell of electrons to get steady. Usually, metals structure cation by losing valence electrons while non-metals structure anions by picking up valence electrons. Sodium chloride (NaCl) is a notable ionic compound. Sodium loses one electron from its external shell while the chlorine increases one electron to fill its external most shell. At the point when sodium (Na+) particles bond with chloride (Cl-) particles they structure basic table salt, sodium chloride (NaCl) (Lister and Renshaw, 2000). Moreover, Sodium chloride (NaCl) is comprised of goliath cross section of particles. There are a lot of sodium particles and chloride particles stuffed together which relies upon how enormous the gem is. Figure 1 (Adapted Steinberg, 2000) shows how does a touch of sodium chloride cross section masterminded. Figure 1: Ionic Bonding in Sodium Chloride (Adapted from Steinberg, 2000) Every sodium particle is at a middle encircled by 6 chloride anions. Every chloride particle is likewise in the middle, it is additionally encircled by 6 sodium cations. So sodium chloride is depicted 6 co-ordinated. The example along these lines will be rehashed on many occasions in sodium chloride gem and guarantee the greatest soundness in sodium chloride. Since when every particle is moved by 6 inverse charged particles, there is more fascination between the particles which makes the structure progressively steady (Clark, 2010). Figure 2 (Adapted from Clark, 2010) shows unmistakably the unit cell of sodium chloride. Figure 2: Unit Cell of Sodium Chloride (Adapted from Clark, 2010) Usually, the molecules organize in a normal way, yet now and then this isn't the situation. Every single metal iota comprise of a ton of precious stone grains which are districts of consistency. At grains limits iotas become inconformity. There are different properties in ionic mixes. Right off the bat, ionic mixes have a high softening point and breaking point. There are solid attractions between the positive and negative particles which take a great deal of vitality to defeat them. Furthermore, one of the fundamental properties of ionic mixes is they direct power when liquid, since when the compound is in the fluid express, the particles can convey the charge openly. Ionic mixes are fragile which coming about because of an applied pressure. The particles will be moved adequately to reach between particles. Particles of the equivalent charged are carried next to each other prompting aversion powers inside the gem. Numerous ionic mixes break down in the water. Water atoms have unbonded electrons, called solitary sets. They draw in positive particles and negative particles in the mixes structure dative bonds and polar water structures electrostatic attractions between the particles. Water atoms additionally produce vit ality by hydration to separate the grid and diminish their fascination (Clark, 2010). Covalent bonds Particles sharing electrons structure covalent bonds which the electronegativity contrast between two molecules are under 1.8. Goliath Covalent Structure In goliath covalent structures, all particles are reinforced together by covalent bonds which straightforwardly have an effect on explicit iotas in a customary broadened organize. The electrostatics powers hold different structures together to act similarly every which way. Precious stone is best case of goliath covalent structure (Lister and Renshaw, 2000). Jewel has a tetrahedral shape in three-measurements, with four covalent bonds from every carbon molecule. As indicated by VSEPR hypothesis which can clarify the degrees of repugnance between synthetic bonds (Lane, 2009), to decrease the shock four sets of covalent bonds structure and covalent bonds repulse each other similarly. There are no intermolecular powers of fascination just, between the carbon molecules. Figure 4 (Adapted from Chemcases, 2010) shows the structure of precious stone Figure 4 shows the structure of jewel (Adapted from Chemcases, 2010). Precious stone is notable as the hardness common substance, and results from four in number covalent bonds giving jewel a solid inflexible broadened and ceaseless structure, so precious stone simply can be cut by other jewel. What's more, jewel has an exceptionally high dissolving purpose of around 4000K, on the grounds that to separate the four in number covalent securities requires a great deal of vitality. Next, the electrons which are held firmly are not allowed to move, bringing about the precious stone having neither direct power nor heat. Finally, precious stone is insoluble in water in light of the fact that the covalent bonds are a lot more grounded than the fascination of water particles (Clark, 2000). Basic Molecular Structure The basic sub-atomic substances are non-metal mixes which are comprised of molecules by solid covalently bond and generally feeble intermolecular powers. Water is taken as a run of the mill kind of the straightforward sub-atomic structure (Lower, 2010). In water, every hydrogen molecule is bound to the focal oxygen iota by a couple of sharing electrons. Oxygen has four free electrons in its external second level to frame two solitary sets to decrease the shocks between billows of negative charge, leaving two of the external electrons imparted to hydrogen to shape covalent bonds. This standard prompts a tetrahedral structure in which the point between electron sets is 104.5â °. Also, water particles structures hydrogen holding. Oxygen likes electrons more than hydrogen and electrons invest more energy close to the oxygen, bringing about oxygen is part negative charge while the hydrogen is sure charge. Electrons are disseminated prompting water structure a negative structure of hydrogen bonds. Dipole-dipole attractions happen between two water particles, because of its polar nature (Lane, 2009). Figure 5 (Adapted from Google, 2010) shows the structure of water atom. Figure 5: Hydrogen Bonding Between Water Molecules (Adapted from Google, 2010) As the frail powers exist in straightforward atomic substances, they are not extremely thick or solid nor strong bringing about it having a low softening point and breaking point. Straightforward sub-atomic substances can without much of a stretch become gas or fluid. There are no particles existing in these substances, so they are insoluble in the water and can not lead power (Lower, 2010). Metallic Structure Metals are monster structures which hold the iotas together by metallic holding moving the electrons. All components of metal can without much of a stretch lose electrons shaping positive particles which are in a uninhibitedly moving ocean and electrons. What number of electrons have been lost by each metal decide the quantity of electrons in the ocean (Lister and Renshaw, 2000). Most particles in metals pack as close as could reasonably be expected. Notwithstanding, sodium in Group one is progressively open and less thick and structures a unit called the body-focused cubic (BCC) structure which is a typical pressing geometry for certain metals. This structure is certainly not a nearby stuffed plan, only 68% of the space being filled (Lister and Renshaw, 2000). There is a molecule situated in the focal point of a solid shape which is encircled by eight different circles. Figure 3 (Adapted from Clark, 2007) shows the structure of sodium: a coordination of eight and a unit cell containing two iotas. Figure 3: The Structure of Sodium (Adapted from Clark, 2007) There are a few properties about metals. The greater part of metals will in general have a high liquefying point and breaking point because of the quality of the metallic holding. The quality of metallic holding isn't just not quite the same as metal to metal, yet additionally relies upon the quantity of electrons which every particle can delocalise in the ocean of electrons and by the pressing. Progress metals have a high softening point and breaking point since they structure a unit called hexagonal close pressing. Gathering one, for example, Sodium is an exemption and has a low dissolving point and breaking point, since it just has one electron to add to the bond and it is 8 co-ordinated which can not frame sufficient bonds as different metals. Besides, metals are acceptable transmitters of power. The electrons in the ocean are allowed to move all through the structure even cross the grain limits. The metallic holding despite everything exists as long as molecules are contacting o ne another. Likewise, these electrons are additionally answerable for the high warm conductivities of metals. Electrons of the metals can get heat vitality which is moved to the remainder of metal by moving electrons (Clark, 2007). Taking everything into account, electrons are moved shaping ionic holding in ionic

Writing an Outline Listing Essay Sample

Writing an Outline Listing Essay SampleWriting an outline listing essay samples can prove to be a daunting task. It seems that each time I sit down to write an outline listing essay I feel as though I'm going to lose it. I begin to write sentences that I know I am not sure how to actually structure.You can actually write out an outline listing in many different ways. A couple of examples include the following. You can make use of the headline first as a starting point. Or you can make use of the first paragraph or even the first two paragraphs to outline your outline listing essay.Then, you will usually make use of the introduction for your outline listing. As you can see, this can be quite a large section for you to outline. Although a good outline listing essay outline writer might claim that it's just a small portion, it's still quite a lengthy outline listing.For the main body of your outline listing, you can probably use the sentence outline in most cases. However, if you feel a s though you will need to use a different outline listing essay template, I highly recommend that you find a different one. And I highly recommend that you write the outline listings yourself.This will save you the time and energy that it takes to read through and organize all of the information that you may have already gathered to organize the information. And if you don't write the outline listing from scratch but rather use another outline listing essay template, then you will be able to incorporate what you already know.However, when you are writing an outline listing you need to make sure that you get everything that you can out of the information. Sometimes it can be very helpful to make your outline listing feel a little more like an outline so that you can get your points across more easily. Once you have established that you have everything that you need to say about a particular topic, then you should be able to write the sentence in which you will lay out all of the poin ts that you have been discussing. This will help make your outline listing essay feel more like an outline.And there you have it, that is all that is necessary to write an outline listing essay. It will probably take you just a few minutes to write an outline listing. And, if you write it yourself, then you can save yourself the time and effort that it takes to write an outline.

Essay on The Evil Iago of Othello - 603 Words

Evil masterminds are always successful in their diabolical schemes, but each one does it in their own special way. Some may be highly ranked and powerful, but some may be simple people in a simple community. In the play Othello, the simple ancient, Iago is very successful at his schemes. Iago is able to get the trust of everyone around him, and to appear honest. He is also driven to continue with his schemes and to never quite. From the first scene of the play to the last, Iago is able to be trusted by everyone. This is one of the many reasons why Iago is so successful in his schemes, he is always trusted. In the first scene of the play we learn that Iago is helping Roderigo, win the love of Desdemona. Roderigo is trusting Iago with his†¦show more content†¦You have told me she hath received them, and returned me expectations and comfort of sudden respect and acquaintance; but I find none† (IV, ii, 186-190). Roderigo started to see that Iago is cheating on him, but Iago is smart enough, and Roderigo is dumb enough for Iago to confuse him. In the second act during the party after the defeat over the Turks, Cassio becomes very drunk and easily taken advantage of. He then runs into the room where everyone is and attacks Roderigo. Montano intervenes and is then wounded by Cassio; Othello is forced to demote Cassio from his position of Lieutenant. With Cassio devastated he asks for advice from Iag o, he then informs Cassio the only way to gain his position back is to talk to Desdemona. Cassio then leaves â€Å"good night, Honest Iago† (II, iii, 306). Shakespeare put in those two extra words on purpose; he is trying to show how Iago is already able to play with people’s minds and how manipulative he can be. Us, the audience knowing what Iago really wants to do, but Cassio puts trust into Iago with his position and future. The last person to believe Iago is honest and to trust him is Othello. Iago started to tell Othello of how Desdemona might be sleeping with Cassio, and how she is cheating on him. Othello does not believe him as there is no proof, â€Å"I’ll see before I doubt; when I doubt, prove; and on the proof there is no more but this† (III, iii, 190-191). Othello knowsShow MoreRelated Iago as the Representation of Evil in Shakespeares Othello1769 Words   |  8 PagesIago as the Representation of Evil in Othello In Shakespeares, Othello, the reader is presented the classic battle between the deceitful forces of evil and the innocence of good. It is these forces of evil that ultimately lead to the breakdown of Othello, a noble Venetian moor, well known by the people of Venice as an honorable soldier and a worthy leader. Othellos breakdown results in the murder of his wife Desdemona. Desdemona is representative of the good in nature. 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The play of Othello is the finest example of Shakespeare’s poetic and narrative style. Thus, Shakespeare is known as the most influential dramatist whose tragedies found the way to interact with the audience.Shakespeare’s Othello is about jealousy, revenge and deceptionRead MoreThe Mirror Of Weaknesses Of Shakespeare s Othello Essay1483 Words   |  6 PagesWeaknesses Humans are contradictions, which good and evil nature both exists. The grand tragic play Othello written by Shakespeare illustrates the contradictions in human natures through the display of tragic falls of various characters such as Othello, Iago, and Roderigo. Othello, the protagonist of the play, fell in love with the daughter of a nobleman, Desdemona. However, this relationship is soon broken up because Othello believed the accusation from Iago, Othello’s subordinate, towards Desdemona for

A Risk Management Plan for a Construction Company

Risk Management Plan Policy ABC Constructions is a long time industry leader in its ability to identify, categorise and mitigate risks and their effects. We take great pride in the extensive investigation of all our projects to identify such risks and educate all stakeholders in ways to undertake processes they comply with the information provided in the following risk management plan. ABC constructions has developed and implemented a risk management framework for the overseeing of all procedures that can occur on our building sites and/or any areas that are directly associated to ABC Constructions. Scope RMIT has contacted ABC constructions regarding a project on 17 Cardigan Street, Carlton, Victoria. The site is located inside the jurisdiction of the City of Melbourne and all local legislation must be satisfied throughout the duration of the project. The site also borders other buildings and infrastructure including roads and footpaths, Dracula’s to the south (left-hand-side from street), a multi-storey car park behind the site and another building to the north (right-hand-side from street view) and this should be taken into account during the project. 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Freidrich Nietzsche Essay Example For Students

Freidrich Nietzsche Essay Friedrich Nietzsche, a unique philosopher had some very interesting ideas about peoples human values and personality types. In this essay I will explain what I like and dislike about his ?Master Morality? ; his antithesis to this, ?Slave Morality?. According to Nietzche, all morality is a manifestation of the will to power. The other is driven by the will to power but attempts to deny this. The term ?master morality? refers to all the values of the psychologically strong willed people. They stress independence, personal dignity, self-approval and the will to succeed. For such people ?good? refers to whatever leads to self-fulfillment with values such as nobility, strength, courage, power and pride. The antithesis to the master morality is the ?slave morality.? This morality appeals to those who are uncertain of themselves, weak willed. They define ?good? as what makes life easier, safer, with such qualities as patience, humility, charity, modesty and compassion. I agree and disagree with Nietzsche. I agree with the will to power. That all individuals are driven by this will. I am living proof. I want to be in charge of my future. I have goals in every aspect of my life that I want to fulfill, everyone does. Without these goals there would be no motivation for life. Artists wouldnt want to be artists, scientists wouldnt care about science, and people wouldnt care about themselves. I also agree with the master moralitys virtues not the master morality as a perfect being. I think we need these virtues In order to succeed in fulfilling the goals set forth by the will to power. I feel that when a person finds him or herself these master morality virtues are evident. The slave morality on the otherhand, I think has some virtues and some downfalls as Nietzsche suggests. Patience, modesty, charity and compassion are some of the virtues that Nietszche believes to be ?sour grapes?. I believe in these qualities. The part of the slave moral that I think is sour grapes is people who are not independent, look at others and follow, lack self respect, and people who waist their talents. I think that the ?master morality? would include qualities from both of Nietzsches personality types. It would include such virtues as personal power, strength, courage, pride, independence, patience, kindness, charity and compassion. This to me is a complete person. But this is reality and in reality you can have these virtues and at the same time stray from what you believe in. I think the key to life is to find oneself and to be happy. In todays society there are to many people who do not know who they are. People tend to follow the group. Dress how everyone else dresses, listen to the same music everyone else listens too and they never explore their own world. This to me is the ?weak or slave.? There is a whole world out there waiting to be found. Art, culture and nature if they only open their eyes to see it. Like Nietzsches philosophy states, ? even the weak have the desire for power.? The weak to me look at others thinking thats the way to get it. The real root to power is wit hin yourself. In finding yourself you need those virtues and when you find yourself they stay with you. Life is not as cut and dry as Nietzsche suggests. I dont believe in classifying the human race in to two categories. Life is too complex and the mind is a mysterious thing. Although the qualities and virtues talked about are ideal, I wish it was that simple to apply to a person. I think you have to take in account the persons surroundings, what influences the person has had in their life. Everything plays a role. Unfortunately the environment plays a large part in the development in a person. But I think its never to late for a person to change or find him or herself. Life is a journey. One last thing that Nietzsches philosophy states are that the weak were able to convert the strong or master morality race into thinking like them. This took place early in time when Constantine was in power. This seems to contradict Nietzsches Master morality. The master morality is supposed mean that the person is very strong minded. This overhaul of thought makes his master morality concept look alittle weak and further supports my point that you cant classify people into two categories. The mind is a tricky thing. .u77779d1d4ac93213ae67179dd1cb9c5d , .u77779d1d4ac93213ae67179dd1cb9c5d .postImageUrl , .u77779d1d4ac93213ae67179dd1cb9c5d .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u77779d1d4ac93213ae67179dd1cb9c5d , .u77779d1d4ac93213ae67179dd1cb9c5d:hover , .u77779d1d4ac93213ae67179dd1cb9c5d:visited , .u77779d1d4ac93213ae67179dd1cb9c5d:active { border:0!important; } .u77779d1d4ac93213ae67179dd1cb9c5d .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u77779d1d4ac93213ae67179dd1cb9c5d { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u77779d1d4ac93213ae67179dd1cb9c5d:active , .u77779d1d4ac93213ae67179dd1cb9c5d:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u77779d1d4ac93213ae67179dd1cb9c5d .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u77779d1d4ac93213ae67179dd1cb9c5d .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u77779d1d4ac93213ae67179dd1cb9c5d .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u77779d1d4ac93213ae67179dd1cb9c5d .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u77779d1d4ac93213ae67179dd1cb9c5d:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u77779d1d4ac93213ae67179dd1cb9c5d .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u77779d1d4ac93213ae67179dd1cb9c5d .u77779d1d4ac93213ae67179dd1cb9c5d-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u77779d1d4ac93213ae67179dd1cb9c5d:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Literary Criticism on The Chosen EssayPhilosophy Essays

Mass Sixth Extinction and How it is Unnatural Essays - Biology

Mass Sixth Extinction and How it is Unnatural After roughly 3.5 billion years of evolution, a vanishing of it all is rapidly approaching. The Earth has seen such a calamitous mass extinction events before. In the last approximate 540 million years; the Earth has seen five major mass extinctions. These occurrences are so extraordinary that they are known as the "Big Five." However, this period, the Holocene Era, may soon be known as the Earth's "sixth mass extinction". The Holocene extinction is in progress and it is said that it will be unlike any other mass extinction. Opposing all the previous extinctions that have been driven by natural environmental changes or catastrophic asteroid impacts, the Holocene extinction will be linked to biodiversity loss due to human action.Whether people believe that we are facing a mass extinction at this time or not, the fact that the Earths biodiversity loss is unquestionable. Since the year 1500, more than 320 terrestrial vertebrates have become extinct. Studies propose the lingering terrest rial vertebrate populations that survived the extinctions have revealed a twenty-five percent average deterioration in abundance. All of this data and decline are linked to humans. Earth's biodiversity involves all the varieties of plants, animals, and other living things in the world. All that lives in the Earth's biodiversity is part of the network of life. From every species of foliage and every creature on Earth, each have a place and plays a dynamic part in the circle of life. Plants, animals, and insects all interrelate and depend upon one another for what each offer, such as food, housing, oxygen, and soil enrichment. However, humans are over using resources, destroying habitats, familiarizing non-native species, scattering pathogens, slaughter species directly, and shifting global climate. All of these things, including several more, are now instigating the sixth mass extinction through humans' violations on the Earth's biodiversity. The major stimulus of Earth's ongoing ha rm of biodiversity is overpopulation. Currently, there are over seven billion people on Earth, and roughly 227,000 are added daily. Subsequently, with a rising population means an increasing need for resources to accommodate the inhabitants. What Is Biodiversity states that "Humans annually consume forty-two percent of the Earth's terrestrial net primary productivity, thirty percent of its marine net primary productivity, and fifty percent of its fresh water. Additionally, "Forty percent of the planet's land is devoted to human food production and fifty percent of the planet's land mass has been transformed for human use." While the human population is budding, the other species are vanishing 1,000 to 10,000 times faster than the ordinary amount. Earth's aquatic biodiversity and water structure is also suffering due to the current loss of biodiversity. Earth's oceans are the world's main source of food. However, over the last 60 years the stock of large fish has dropped by ninety pe rcent. Around 1.2 billion people consume fish as their main source of protein. Over fishing is the main cause in the sharp drop in numbers of fish. In fact, Lee and Safina states, "Long-line fishing vessels deploys approximately 1.4 billion hooks a year, and trawling vessels cast nets with openings up to the size of 4 football fields." The issues confronting aquatic biodiversity is also the same problem distressing land dwelling species biodiversity. If a species' population is depleted to low points that the species' part as prey, predator, and/or competitor is affected; it is extremely harmful and distresses the whole ecosystem. Fundamentally, all the species living in the same bionetwork will become naturally or functionally extinct; including to both marine and earthly life. The reason is because plummeting competition and/or predation, permits additional species to become more dominant in the ecosystem. Therefore, this disturbs the usual stability of numerical and practical ass ociations between species in an ecosystem. The overpopulation of humans, brings issues that affect biodiversity negatively. Human habitats grow with the swelling human populations causing more industrial growth, along with the spreading of diseases and pollution. In areas where there are high concentrations of people that leads to a large incidence of rodents, bringing high amounts of pathogens, meaning an upsurge in the risk of transmitting disease. In prominent manufacturing areas, there larger amounts of pollution, having an influence

Archetype vs. Prototype

Archetype vs. Prototype Archetype vs. Prototype Archetype vs. Prototype By Mark Nichol What’s your type? Archetype and prototype are both suitable matches for referring to an exemplar and then there’s stereotype but among their senses are both similar and dissimilar meanings. Before we go into details, let’s look at the root word: Type (from the Latin term typus, â€Å"image,† ultimately derived from the Greek word typos, â€Å"impression†) is defined as â€Å"a model,† â€Å"a distinctive sign,† â€Å"a set of distinguishable qualities.† Idiomatic usage for the word includes â€Å"type A personality† (indicating a high-strung person, based on popular perception of a discredited psychological theory), â€Å"casting against type† (referring to when performers are selected for roles they don’t superficially seem suited for), and â€Å"not my type† (dismissal of another person because of personal incompatibility). In two senses, archetype and prototype are direct synonyms: They both mean â€Å"original pattern or model,† or â€Å"perfect example.† However, archetype (Latin, archetypum; Greek, arkhetypon), which literally means â€Å"first model,† also refers to C. J. Jung’s concept of an idea or image from the collective subconscious; it has a more intellectual connotation. The prefix arch- denotes the most accomplished or high ranking of a type (archrival, archvillain), as does the suffix -arch (patriarch, hierarch); -archy is the basis for terms describing a system of government (monarchy) or an organizational scheme (hierarchy). Interestingly, because the prefix was so often employed, as in the examples above, to describe a nefarious person, arch acquired an adjectival sense of â€Å"mischievous, impudent.† (The arch in, well, arch, referring to a structural member, has a different etymology and is akin to arc.) Prototype has the same literal meaning, but its primary sense is more utilitarian, referring to a standard configuration, the initial model of a constructed object, or an earlier version of an organism or a device. The proto- prefix is relatively obscure, occurring mostly in scientific terminology (protoplasm, â€Å"beginning molding,† and protozoa, â€Å"beginning animal,† are examples of its use most familiar to laypeople); the root word, as an integral part of a larger term rather than as a suffix, appears in protocol (from a Greek term meaning â€Å"first sheet,† referring to a code or convention dictating proper procedure). Stereotype means â€Å"something that matches a fixed or universal pattern,† but unlike the other terms, it usually has a negative connotation: It refers to an idea, carelessly formed based on ignorance or bigotry, that one class of people generally understands to be, well, typical of another class. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Misused Words category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:7 English Grammar Rules You Should Know10 Techniques for More Precise WritingEmpathic or Empathetic?

Critical Evaluation of the Accenture on the Innovation Death Spiral Article

Critical Evaluation of the Accenture on the Innovation Death Spiral - Article Example Market evaluation at IBM limited may involve looking critically into the business environment to identify the needs and wants of the customers and come up with proper ways to meet the identified needs. It may further involve empowering employees through various methods such as providing them with train programs. Innovation may also be tracked by identifying whether the company is able to provide its employees with the necessary motivation to ensure the necessary job gets done as intended (Bessant and Tidd, 2013). Innovation at IBM limited may also be tracked via identifying the ability of the company to establish proper networks with customers, suppliers and all stakeholders. This means that for IBM limited to be successful it must be in opposition to establish clear communication networks. The networks may help to collect information regarding the market demand and look forward to how the identified needs could be met in a more effective and efficient manner. Finally, innovation may be tracked via the continuous search for the necessary advice that may help to keep the IBM limited from moving forward. This means that strong leadership may be required to lead others towards channeling their efforts toward realizing organization goals and objectives (Adair, 2009). The three most important approaches may be used to prevent IBM limited from moving towards the death spiral such approaches include; breakthrough, platform, and incremental innovations. Breakthrough innovation approach may be suitable for IBM limited given that it is a large organization that has large capital investments. This approach has been proved to be successful at Apple Company on it’s I pad brand. The second type of innovative approach that may be applied by IBM Limited may involve platform innovation.  

Should high schools offer vocational education, or should students go Essay

Should high schools offer vocational education, or should students go to trade schools for practical job training - Essay Example It can be said beyond doubt that academic education plays an important role in sharpening and broadening the minds of the students, however practical application of the theoretical studies do much more. Providing vocational education in the high schools also diversify the curriculum, providing students with greater learning and experience. If a person wishes to pursue a career in a technical field, he needs to have a solid foundation and practice to ensure a successful career. This foundation can be made if high schools offer optional vocational education to its students. Vocational education also prepares the students for their practical life by granting them exposure to the practical works (Copa). If the students get vocational education during their high school, they can also polish their skills by working part time in the related field; so that by the time, their high school is finished, they would be ready to follow their respective careers. Providing vocational education in hig h school also allows the students to recognize their interests so that, in future they can opt for a career that suits their liking (Felder and Glavin). The market for skilled technical labor is constantly on the rise. Technical workers are hugely in demand and thus get high compensations for their work.

Baidu Enters African Mobile Browser Essay Example for Free

Baidu Enters African Mobile Browser Essay Executive Summary Baidu Inc. will benefit from partnering with France Telecoms’ Orange to enter in Africa’s mobile searching market which has large potential opportunities and revenues. Africa, the Next Major Mobile Market Africa with the second large population in the world and emerging purchasing power from new middle class requires telecommunication to be popularized. The sudden growth and high density of mobile connection in Africa across countries generate large demand of smartphones and mobile webs or other mobile services. The fast speed of growth rate and potential opportunities in this market attract large mobile operators and search engines, and then Africa will become the major mobile market and transform the global economic landscape. Baidu should enter this market earlier to develop its international business Benefits and Limits of Partnering with Orange Exclusively Benefits:Enjoys Orange’s mass customer base Orange has health growth rate Orange has invested 3G networking in order to expand its market share Orange has more than 800 million customers and spreads its operation across 20 countries. Risk: The exclusive agreement limits Baidu’s expand from cooperating with others Evaluation: Despite the limits of the exclusive contract, the benefits of partnering with Orange are great. Baidu, which has less international business experiences, is good to start cooperating with large mobile operators like Orange to step into the large mobile competition in Africa, which has large potential market, opportunities, and revenues. Introduction Baidu Inc. signs its first global agreement with Orange, on an exclusive basis. The Baidu-Orange browser will provide more affordable and richer browsing experience for customers across Africa by enhancing data  compression capabilities up to 90% of compression. The browser is one-click access to web-search like apps. About Baidu: Baidu is the largest searching engine in China, taking more than 70% of the market share. It beat Google out of the Chinese market in 2010 because it was familiar with Chinese web culture in which allows free downloads and develops general searching However, Baidu lose its ability to be business internationalized, since Baidu satisfied its large market share in the region; at the same time it also lose its good timing to establish and develop its mobile searching while the popularizing and development in smartphones has changed the rules of the game from web networking to telecommunication networking. The need of Baidu expanding its global market and mobile web services is important and urgent. Baidu now is targeting in African as an emerging mobile market in the partnership with Orange, a France’s telecom Africa, the Next Major Mobile Market According to the observation from GSMA, African mobile market has dramatically grown and reaches the highest growth rate worldwide due to the governments have liberalized the telecommunication, and competitions between private telecoms have increased service affordability. Africa has large mobile connection penetration and has speedily gown From 2000 to 2011, mobile penetration has rapidly increased in Africa, from just 2% in 2000 to 63% in 2011, representing a compound annual growth rate of over 46%. It is expected to reach 85% mobile connection penetration in 2015 (GSMA, Africa Mobile Observatory Report, September. 2011) (See Figure 1) Figure 1: Mobile connections and penetration in Africa since 2000. Data sources: Wireless Intelligence. The number of cennections in North Africa has grown by 41% while Sub-Saharan Africa has the highest growth rate with 44% worldwidely, compared to an average of 34% for developing countries and 10% for developed countries.(Deloitte;GSMA, Sub-Saharan Africa Mobile Observatory Report, November 13, 2012). (See Figure 2) Figure 2: Growth in the number of mobile connections world wide, 200-2012. Data source: wireless intelligence The rapid growth of mobile communication in Africa generates high demand of mobile telephony and mobile service and increases revenues According to Wireless Intelligence and International Monetary Fund (IMF), mobile operators reported over $35 billion revenues in 2011, growing by an average of 18% each year from $8.2 billion in 20000 in Africa. According to GSMA Africa Observatory 2011 Report, over the past 5 years, the number of subscribers across Africa had grown by almost 20% per year and was set to reach more than 735 million by the end of 2012. The mobile ecosystem in Africa currently generated approximately $56 billion or 3.5% of total GDP, with mobile operators alone contributing $49 billion. Africa is transforming the global economic landscapes. African economies are among the fastest-growing in the world while emerging economies in Asia have been slowed down due to their increasing capital and labor costs and markets saturated. Economists predicted that Africa would be poised to transform the global economic landscapes (John J.; Wild Wild, International Business: the challenge of globalization, January 16, 2013). Annual GDP growth averaged 5.7% between 2000 and 2010 in Sub-Saharan Africa. (IBM, â€Å"Is mobile Africa’s future?,† 2011) Expected annual growth averaged 7% over the next 20 years. (IBM, â€Å"Is mobile Africa’s future?,† 2011) 14% of the world’s population, the second large population in the world, provides large consumption base. (IBM, â€Å"Is mobile Africa’s future?,† 2011) New middle class has been emerging in Africa The purchasing powers from large population and middle class must stimulate the sales of mobile products and co-related mobile services. Africa’s mobile market is a good start for firms like Baidu, which seeking opportunities to expand its international business and mobile operation with  less experiences. Demands from large consumption’s requests and purchasing from new class created substantial profits. Benefits and Limits of Partnering with Orange Exclusively The Chinese Web services giant Baidu will bring its mobile browser to Africa in signing an exclusive contract with France Telecom’s Orange network, the third-biggest mobile operator in Africa. Benefits of partnering with Orange Orange, which has a mobile customer base of more than 80 million subscribers and covers 20 countries in Africa, has continued to see its smartphone user base in Arica and Middle East increasing, for example the demand for Android devices in Egypt has doubled in the second half of 2012 by Marc Rennard, senior executive vice president for Orange. (Deloitte;GSMA, Sub-Saharan Africa Mobile Observatory Report, November 13, 2012) Orange has recently been deploying 3G networks in countries where it has operations and makes more low-cost smartphones available; customers have been steadily moving from basic feature phone towards more low-cost Android smartphones. (Deloitte;GSMA, Sub-Saharan Africa Mobile Observatory Report, November 13, 2012) The mass user base, the wide geographical operations and the increased growth of smartphone users from Orange help Baidu expand its mobile services and data collecting in the new emerging market. This not only makes Baidu get a slice of Africa’s lucrative mobile and data market but also helps Baidu gain experience of transforming itself to be business internationalized and searching mobilized under the pressure of globalization and development in smartphones. Limits of Partnering with Orange Emeka Obiodu, Principal Analyst for Telecom Strategy, Ovum Research, pointed out that there is a limitation for Baidu by dealing with Orange exclusively. Baidu’s deal with Orange may limit the firm’s maneuverability in the market. If Baidu sticks to Orange exclusively, it will depend on Orange’s expansion of its geographical footprint. Obiodu later added his concern for Baidu that Over time, this lack of maneuverability will influence, and maybe undermine, Baidu’s ability to exploit emerging opportunities in the market. While Baidu is tie-up with Orange, its largest competitor Google has already entered in the Africa’s mobile browsing market. Google not only has a deal with South Africa’s giant telecom operator Telkom’s cellphone network unit 8ta but also rolls out a new services in Sub-Saharan Africa though operator Zambia Telecommunication Company, a government-owned telecom. (IDG Reporter, â€Å"Africa is the newest telecoms battleground,† January 27, 2013) The spread of Baidu browser is limited because it is depended on Orange’s geographical footprints due to exclusive agreement, compared with Google, which has multiple partnerships with large government-owned and private-owned operators. Despite the limitation, the benefits from cooperating with Orange for Baidu are greater. Baidu as an inexperienced international investor could decrease its risk to fail the first entry into an emerging market with the helps from sharing Orange’s wide geographical footprints and mass customer base. (TitaniumMedia, Baidu’s Radical Internationalization, 2013) Evaluation of Baidu’s Entry into Africa’s Mobile Bowering Market though Exclusive Partnership with France Telecom’s Orange. Africa’s mobile market Mobile market in Africa is potential and profitable (Deloitte;GSMA, Sub-Saharan Africa Mobile Observatory Report, November13, 2012): 85% mobile connection penetration in 2015 (forecast)  44% mobile connection growth (the highest growth rate worldwide) $49 billion revenues (mobile operator alone)  The fast and wide dissemination of mobile connection and communication in Africa makes the demand for smartphones and mobile web be on the rise remarkably, creating potential mobile market and providing healthy grown profits for Baidu, which is seeking opportunity to internationalize and  mobilize its operation. Partnership with France Telecom’s Orange Despite the limitation of just cooperating with one company, Orange is still a good partner which already has mass customer base and keeps growing users doubly though its investment in 3G networking. Baidu, a Chinese searching engine which has less international business’ experiences, takes advantage of cooperating with Orange in order to lower the risk of first entry into a unknown market by sharing Orange’s mass customer base and wide geographical operation . Entry into Africa and cooperation with Orange are a good start for Baidu turning itself internationalized and mobilized. References Wild, J. J., Wild, K. L. (2013). International business: the challenges of globalization (Seventh ed.). : Pearson College Div. Sub-Saharan Africa Mobile Observatory 2012. Sub-Saharan Africa Mobile Observatory Report. Retrieved May 4, 2014, from www.gsma.com//SSA_FullReport_v6.1_clean.pdf Arican Mobile Observatory 2011 Driving Economic and Social Development through Mobile Services. African Mobile Observatory Report. Retrieved , from www.gsma.com//2011//Africa-Mobile-Observatory Afica is the newest telecoms battleground. (2013, January 27). . Retrieved May 2, 2014, from http://www.cnmeonline.com/analysis/africa-is-the-newest-telecoms- battleground/ Is mobile Africas future?. (2011, January 1). . Retrieved May 15, 2014, fromhttp://www.ibm.com/smarterplanet/global/share/19jan2012/mobile_africa/ Baidu’s Radical Internationalization. (2013, March 31). . Retrieved May 11, 2014, from http://tech.163.com/13/0331/09/8R9JOH9O000915BF.html Appendix A Important notice about GSMA and Deloitt Frequent uses of data, facts, and statistics are from â€Å"Sub-Saharan Africa Mobile Observatory 2012†, a report is prepared by Drloitte for GSM Association with contract. The â€Å"Sub-Saharan Africa Mobile Observatory 2012† is provided exclusively for the GSMA’s use under the terms of contract. No party other than GSMA could be entitled on the report for any purpose whatever Deloitte accepts or not. Appendix B Figure 1 and 2 Figure 1 is from GSMA’s â€Å"Africa Mobile Observatory 2011 Driveng Economic and Social Development through Mobile Services.† Figure 2 from GSMA’s â€Å"Sub-Saharan Africa Mobile Observatory 2012.† Both figures of the charts are collected data from Wireless Intelligence

Washington Irvings Rip Van Winkle Shapes American Culture Essay

Washington Irving's Rip Van Winkle Shapes American Culture "Darkness...lowers upon my mind, and the times are so hard they sicken my soul," says Washington Irving in a letter to a friend (Letters 446). This statement reveals Irving's intense emotional condition, and in many ways indicates the intense social atmosphere as well as his personal conflicts, during the composition of The Sketch Book. Upon the bankruptcy of his family's fortune, of which he depended on solely for his monetary security, Irving found himself flung into the "galling mortifications of independence" (Letters 487). In response to this trauma, he sailed to England to regain his composure and hopefully secure his stake as a writer so he could provide for himself that which would keep him from "being cast homeless and pennyless on the world" (Letters 486). Within statements like these, Irving's countenance is quite apparent. Additionally, it helps to reveal the social atmosphere of the time, as well as increase one's knowledge of "Rip Van Winkle" as it is represent ed in The Sketch Book. And this representation holds great significance to Washington Irving's development as a person, and to American culture's struggle to define itself in a unique (non-British) way. Around 1817 Irving left the United States drained of inspiration, and slid into depression. He wrote of himself to a friend several years later, "I felt cast down,abased,I had lost my cast,I had always been proud of Spirit, and in my country had been, as it were a being of the air,I felt the force of the text 'a wounded spirit who can bear?' " (Letters 743). However, the idea of The Sketch Book which came before he left relieved him to some extent. In many ways, though, hi... ...sponsibilities are. And more particularly what is America's responsibility in trying to create a nation that is unique and separate from its parentage. This is the issue that defines the importance of "Rip Van Winkle," and more particularly The Sketch Book, in the social development of our country. It seems that the particular social and political climate found its summation in our country's search for literary independence. Holistically it was Washington Irving's life, his struggles, his talents, and his perfectly-timed existence in the flow of history that helped to shape and solidify our country's identity, and immortalize him as an author. Works Cited Rubin-Dorsky, Jeffrey. "Irving's Sketches of Anxiety." American Literature. Dec 1986: 507-509, 517-519. Williams, Stanley T. The Life of Washington Irving. 2 vols. London: Oxford, 1935.

Media Management Manual

 A HANDBOOK FOR TELEVISION AND RADIO PRACTITIONERS IN COUNTRIES-IN-TRANSITION Media Management Manual John Prescott Thomas A HANDBOOK FOR TELEVISION AND RADIO PRACTITIONERS IN COUNTRIES-IN-TRANSITION Media Management Manual John Prescott Thomas  Broadcasters’ Media Management Manual Media Management Manual A Handbook for television and radio parishioners in countries-in-transition By John Prescott Thomas  © UNESCO 2009 ISBN No. 978-81-89218-31-7 Printed by Macro Graphics Pvt. Ltd.Published by: Communication and Information Sector United Nations Educational Scientific & Cultural Organization UNESCO House B-5/29 Safdarjung Enclave New Delhi – 110 029 Tel : + 91 11 2671 3000 Fax : +91 11 26713001 /02 e-mail: [email  protected] org Disclaimer The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNESCO concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or are a or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.The author is responsible for the choice and the presentation of the facts contained in this publication and for the opinions expressed therein, which are not necessarily those of the UNESCO and do not commit the organization.  Contents Chapters Foreword Introduction 1 What’s the media game? 2 What are the media for? Media legislation, regulation and governance 4 Management structures and organisation 5 Strategic planning and financial management 6 Programme planning and production 7 Resource planning and resource management 8 Editorial management 9 Managing people Conclusion Appendices A A code of editorial principles and practice B A line-management structure for a typical broadcasting organisation C A plan for restructuring a broadcasting organisation D A glossary of financial terms E A guide to allocating overhead costs to budget centres F A guide to the financial aspects of a business plan G A matrix for a risk-management strategy H An outline format for a programme proposal I An outline format for a programme budget J An outline format for a resources booking form K An outline format for a management information system report L A checklist for programme review of a news-magazine format M A form for the authorisation of covert recording N A format for a job description O A format for an appraisal and career-development form Case Studies Case-History 1: How enforced radical change transformed a strategic plan Case-History 2: How alternative thinking made a successful series possible Case-History 3: How television and radio can work in partnership Case-History 4: How investigative reporting served the public interest The author Page 6 7 9 12 18 31 46 59 70 76 84 89 90 98 100 105 106 108 114 116 118 120 122 124 125 126 128 130 134 136 137 138  Broadcasters’ Media Management Manual ForewordToday, Public Service Broadcasting, whether run by public organisatio ns or privatelyowned companies, is not only challenged by political interests, but also by increased competition from commercial media. The advent of the digital age has ushered in an array of commercial satellite-to-cable channels that threaten public service broadcasting audience loyalties. If viewers are to be retained, there is a pressing need for more dynamic and innovative public broadcasting. Free from political interference and pressure from commercial forces, Public Broadcasting’s only raison d’etre is public service. It speaks to everyone as a citizen. Public broadcasters encourage access to and participation in public life.They develop knowledge, broaden horizons and enable people to better understand themselves by better understanding the world around them. With its specific remit, which is essentially to operate independently of those holding economic and political power, public service broadcasting provides the whole of society with information, culture, education and entertainment; it enhances social, political and cultural citizenship and promotes social cohesion. In the past ten years, UNESCO has been actively engaged in exploring more deeply the concept of public service by specifying the functions, particularly in the fields of education, science and culture, which it is meant to perform, and the means required.Member States called upon the Organization to support public service radio and television broadcasting so that it can fulfill its cultural and educational mandate. UNESCO has continuously supported capacity-building of media professionals, responsible for production, and programming, particularly in issues related to editorial independence, ethical standards and effective and dynamic management. It is in this context, and upon the request of a great number of developing countries media managers, that UNESCO has initiated this handbook. The manual is designed with a specific focus on Public Service Broadcasting, but it co uld be used by every interested individual or media practitioner. It’s a straightforward guide that can help make a broadcaster’s programming more vibrant and engaging.It also offers advice to media executives on how to refine their management structures and practices, to keep their companies operating smoothly. What’s more, it provides practical tips on how to create sustainable financial plans which will help propel public service broadcasters into the future. We believe that this reference book can enhance both the economic and the civic competence of journalists and broadcasters. We hope that it will promote a free and pluralistic journalism and assist broadcasters’ companies in becoming more independent and sustainable; both of which are fundamental for modern democratic societies. Armoogum Parsuramen Director and UNESCO Representative to Bhutan, India, Maldives and Sri Lanka Introduction If you’re looking for a theoretical textbook full of t rendy management jargon – or for a technical buffs’ guide to the latest electronic wizardry – this isn’t it. Nor will it give you a universal blueprint for the ‘right answer’ or the ‘best method’ – panaceas for which I’m repeatedly asked at international conferences and seminars but which don’t, I’m afraid, exist. What it will provide is a repertoire of practical management tools – approaches, structures, systems and techniques – which have been proved to work in a variety of broadcasting contexts and which are particularly relevant to countries-intransition. For whom is it intended?Though it includes a chapter on media institutions and governance, it’s not primarily concerned with the constitutional and political aspects of media management, which are already wellcovered in many other publications. Rather, it’s a hands-on guide for senior and middle managers who want to see their operations flourish and succeed in a rapidly-changing and increasingly competitive environment. Its aim is to help them make the most effective use of whatever levels of resources, money and staff are available within their own organisations. Rich-country colleagues who are already into HDTV, multi-platform distribution, large-scale webcasting, podcasting, mobile reception, interactivity, ‘quadruple-play bundling’ and the rest may find some of it old hat to them.I can say only that more than twelve years of working with broadcasters in countriesin-transition – many of whom have no real tradition of pro-active management and would envy the resources you had decades ago – have shown that this is exactly the kind of practical guidance they want and need. That’s not, of course, to imply that the latest technologies should be inaccessible or irrelevant to countries-in-transition. Indeed, given the speed of change, some of them may be in a position to ‘skip a technological generation’ in broadcasting, just as they have in adopting mobile telephones ahead of land-lines. But the basic management principles in the manual apply to them too. I’m indebted to many organisations and individuals for their contribution to developing these ideas.To the BBC, of course, where I spent most of my working (and therefore my learning) life. To Westcountry Television, for the experience of starting-up from scratch a completely new and ground-breaking operation and for introducing me to the world of commercial broadcasting. To the Cabinet Office Top Management Programme and its remarkable tutors, for some revelatory insights into modern management principles and practice. To the Thomson Foundation, the British Council, the UK’s Department for International Development, the Council of Europe and the OSCE for opportunities to work with broadcasters and governments in some  Broadcasters’ Media Management Manual we nty countries-in-transition; their assignments have been the source of much of the material in this manual. To UNESCO for making the manual possible. And to the very many professional colleagues and friends with whom I’ve been privileged to bat around ideas and opinions over more than forty years. Particular acknowledgements are due to Dick Bates and Zofair Ammar for their input on financial management and to Phil Speight for his suggestions on editorial and production practice. If there are errors in the manual the fault is, of course, mine alone. The terminology I’ve used is generally that of British broadcasting conventions and practice. (‘Regional’, for instance, usually efers to regions within a country, rather than to wider geographical groupings of several countries – like the Middle East or the South Pacific. ) Where that might risk confusion, I’ve tried to clarify what’s intended. Because its operations are more complex, many of the illustrations are taken from television but the principles are manifestly equally applicable to radio. We’re facing an era of change on an unprecedented scale and at unprecedented speed. Let’s together ensure that the media lead the way down the road of management reform and progress. That way the development of broadcasting can also bring with it broadcasting for development.John Prescott Thomas Bristol 2009 9 1 What’s the Media Game? 10 Broadcasters’ Media Management Manual T he truth is that nobody really knows – yet. The only thing that’s absolutely certain is that the old certainties have gone for good. The BBC was designed in the 920s on the pattern of the British civil service to run a monopoly. If it had stayed that way, it would now be as dead as the dodo. As will be any broadcasting organisation which fails to adapt to the new media environment. (And, sadly, the dodo doesn’t even know that it’s extinct: none o f us gets to read our own obituary. ) There’s no market more dynamic and fast-moving than that of the media.New technologies – and convergence among existing ones – are causing monumental shifts both in consumer behaviour and in the potential for content providers and distributors. Some will emerge as big winners; but the actual take-up by consumers is by no means universally assured and is constantly changing. (Viewers with access to 24-hour television news services currently watch them for only nine minutes a day on average; in Britain, ITV has already closed down its rolling-news channel. ) As digital technology brings with it a previously unimaginable proliferation of media outlets, the audience share of any individual broadcaster must inexorably fall.The figures are already a fraction of what they were even ten years ago: programmes once watched by  or 20 million viewers are now lucky to attract five million and the figures are still falling. In fact, in this new media world, to speak of broadcasting in its traditional sense may become an anachronism. Though people are still spending a lot of time in front of their screens, they’re devoting much less of it to viewing broadcast schedules. In 2006, internet use in Britain exceeded broadcasttelevision viewing for the first time; at the time of writing, Google’s UK advertising revenue has already overtaken that of the terrestrial commercial television channels. So content providers are increasingly integrating terrestrial transmission with satellite, cable, broadband and telephony.And with print: the web-sites of newspapers are increasingly indistinguishable from those of broadcasters; which raises interesting questions for regulators in countries where, historically, the regulatory regimes for the two means of publishing are significantly different. For broadband distribution of similar content, which rules should apply? DVDs, video-on-demand, interactive channels and vid eo games are all transforming the traditional viewing experience. PVR (‘every viewer his or her own scheduler’) enables the audience to by-pass commercial breaks, with major consequences for conventional advertising revenue. With the spread of broadband, the internet is becoming a distribution network on a scale inconceivable when its only access was by slow and expensive dial-up links.Mobile reception is making significant inroads, suggesting that ‘place-shifting’ will be the next step-change beyond (now long-established) time-shifting: viewers will be able to watch their own television on a laptop or other device anywhere in the world via the internet. And the simplification – and the cheapness – of authoring equipment and software means that anyone can now shoot and edit their own material and blog and vlog it world-wide over the net. (You can already 11 buy an Apple PowerBook loaded with Final Cut Pro for less than ? 200. ) The use by the professional media of more and more so-called UGC (user-generated content), both on-screen and in print, suggests that the ‘citizen journalist’ is becoming a reality.We’re seeing a democratisation of the airwaves – a major shift from a channelbased to a network-based world, from ‘push’ to ‘pull’ consumption. That doesn’t mean, of course, that ‘linear’ broadcasting will disappear; indeed, it’s likely to remain the principal content-source for very many people. But it will have to learn how to co-exist with many other competing outlets and to survive with much-reduced audiences. In the face of this revolution, what can conventional broadcasters with limited resources do? The answer is: stop being conventional. Even if many of the new opportunities are not realistic options for you, get rid of outmoded ideas, dismantle old-fashioned structures, abandon bureaucratic procedures and build in flexibility and f ast-moving adaptability.And even if (or, rather, especially if) you’re a publicly-funded outfit, learn the cost-saving lessons of successful commercial operations and apply them internally. Get competitive by optimising operational efficiency and cost-effectiveness. That or, I’m afraid, wave goodbye to your audience. You don’t actually need state-of-the-art technology to do this, though of course it’s nice to have. Nor do you need to have mastered the works of the latest management-speak gurus. What you do need is a different way of looking at things and the will to put that new thinking into practice. That’s what this manual is all about. 12 Broadcasters’ Media Management Manual Whats the Media Game? 2 What are the Media for? 13 I you’re a commercial broadcaster, the obvious answer is to earn money for your shareholders. But it’s not as simple as that. Even if you’re commercially-funded, you may well have public-service obligations written into the terms of your broadcasting licence. And even if you’re state-funded, you may have to supplement your income from public money by raising commercial revenue from advertising or other sources. There are now very few public-service broadcasters which are financed wholly and solely from public funds; the BBC, Japan’s NHK and ABC in Australia are the only major ones. The first two funded by a licence fee and the third by a government grant.So, one way or another, you’re quite likely to be operating in a ‘mixed economy’. Where do you sit in that market? As the range of digital opportunities grows, the argument that the spectrum is a scarce resource requiring firm regulation becomes less sustainable (more on this in Chapter Three). So we’re likely to see commercial broadcasters acting more and more as dealers in a commodity and radio and television stations finding themselves free to adopt an engaged editorial line, as newspapers have done for decades. The first signs of these changes are already with us: Fox News is a strong example of the second, with an explicitly-declared political agenda; examples of the first can be found almost everywhere.But, in news at least, it seems likely that ‘due impartiality’ will continue to be a requirement for broadcasters which are publicly-funded. Of course, most countries-in-transition aren’t there yet. How might their media position themselves? Let’s start from first principles. Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights 19 states: Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes the freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information through any media and regardless of frontiers. Very many countries have signed up to this declaration. So in how many of them is Article 9 observed?The answer is that only 20% of the world’s population live in such free-media societies. The ‘least free’ media environments are in Asia, where many governments see dissent and opposition as ‘not conducive to the general good’; in such countries We need to establish that free media are an essential element in civil society. That’s an idea which it’s still difficult to get past what we might call the ‘Ministry of Information mentality’. 1 Broadcasters’ Media Management Manual there’s a long way to go. But nor should western democracies feel complacent: in the 200 press-freedom league-table issued by Reporters Without Frontiers, while the Nordic nations led the field, Britain ranked 24th and the United States only 44th.We need to establish that free media are an essential element in civil society. That’s an idea which it’s still difficult to get past what we might call ‘the Ministry of Information mentality’. While governments will rightly have their own press and public relations operations, we should maintain that it’s not right for them to control directly – still less to monopolise – national broadcasting institutions. Even where they’re publiclyfunded, broadcasters should be free to treat information from government agencies exactly as they would treat information from any other source (with one or two exceptions, like dealing with national emergencies or natural disasters, which are considered in Chapter Three).Though western European nations haven’t, historically, been at all immune to the politicisation of broadcasting, the role of the media should nowhere be to act simply as a mouthpiece for the government of the day. Rather, their duty is disclosure in the public interest: the revealing of information and the holding to account of public institutions and individuals for their statements and actions. (Remember the old definition of news as ‘something that someone, somewhere, woul d rather you didn’t know’. ) It follows that public-service media should, overall, represent properly and fairly all voices in society. In particular, when a majority view has prevailed, they should be able to ensure that the views and interests of minorities are still safeguarded and find expression. Is this an utopian ideal? No – because it already exists in many countries.And because the ‘Ministry of Information’ model is becoming, in practice, less credible and sustainable almost by the week. Here are just five examples: n In an East Asian country, the authorities are anxious to ensure that the internet isn’t used to spread ‘incorrect’ ideas – so they apply filters in order to police web traffic. But inventive bloggers have got round this by devices such as spelling ‘democracy’ – a trigger-word – with a zero instead of an o. Anyone can read and understand it but the computer doesn’t re cognise it. This then becomes a cat-and-mouse game, with each side manoeuvring to keep one jump ahead of the other; information suppressed on one web-site also quickly pops up somewhere else. In an African country some years ago the government banned an issue of the major national newspaper which included an article critical of the authorities. This achieved little other than to make the government look foolish, because the article had already been published electronically and was available world-wide on the web. n In a country in the Caucasus, the state broadcaster made no mention for three days of a ferry disaster in which many had died. Meanwhile, everybody had heard about it on the grapevine and people were already demonstrating outside the ferry company’s headquarters, wanting to know what had happened to their relatives. (The demonstration wasn’t reported either. n In the Arabic-speaking world, some state broadcasters operate restrictive 1 regimes; but satellite broadcasting takes the independent voice of al-Jazeera to a television audience of many millions of their people in a common language. n In the former German Democratic Republic, long before satellite transmission was common, many television aerials in border areas were regularly swung towards the west to receive alternative sources of information and opinion. All this suggests that one of the best arguments for persuading politicians of the merits of free media is that imposing direct control doesn’t ultimately work. The sheer volume of web-traffic, for instance, will in the long term make it un-policeable.There are already more than 7 million servers in the world and that number is growing by a million a month; the world-wide web has 3,000 billion pages and another 2,000 are added every hour. China has already given up trying to control the Wikipedia web-site. Even where governments are rigorous in suppressing free expression, the idea that by doing so they control the w ay people think is often illusory. In the Soviet era, the two major state media mouthpieces were Izvestia (The News) and Pravda (The Truth). Among the Russian people, a well-known joke was that v Pravdye nye izvestia; v Izvestiye nye pravda: ‘There’s no news in The Truth and no truth in The News’.When people know that information is being suppressed or manipulated, they become contemptuous of the official media and find their own alternative sources and means of expression. And even when governments profess to act from the best of motives – maintaining national unity in the drive to development, for instance – the results can be counter- productive. The financial scandals of the 990s in South-east Asia showed how, far from protecting decent values, restrictive control of the media simply served to conceal massive corruption. If governments really want the media to be a tool for development, that should include being a tool for democracy.It’s therefore important for media practitioners to persuade politicians and officials that, in the modern global context, they have more to gain than to lose by promoting media freedom. Before 980 the Kenyan government tended to view the institutions of civil society more as competitors than as partners in development. There was deep suspicion of any organisation with the potential for developing an independent power-base – which included the media. The government was able to ensure that the population was only partially-informed by discouraging the coverage of civil action organisations: equipment would be confiscated, publishers would be detained and vital advertising revenue would dry up for fear of offending the authorities.But, as the country progressed from single-party rule to multi-party democracy, politicians began to accept that the state alone simply didn’t have the resources to deliver the development initiatives promised at independence. So the 989 Developm ent Plan finally acknowledged that non-state bodies had a part to play alongside government and that the role of the media was crucial in promoting the wider public interest. The lesson is clear. If a government imposes direct control on the media, then civil society will indeed become a rival rather than a partner; and the more restrictive 1 Broadcasters’ Media Management Manual the control, the more opposition elements will seek to exploit alternative outlets for their political advantage.Ultimately, governments are therefore better-served by public-service broadcasting which is firmly established outside the political arena. And, from the management point of view, it becomes increasingly difficult for a broadcaster to compete with rival outlets unless it has the credibility which comes from editorial independence. The experience of South Africa in 994 is perhaps the most positive recent example of a fundamental change in the government / media relationship. The South Afr ican Broadcasting Corporation, once an institution deployed explicitly in support of the nationalist government’s apartheid policies, was transformed into a force for democratic expression in which the broadcasters were given independent editorial responsibility.As one observer commented: For the tens of thousands who stayed glued to their screens for Election 94, the image of non-racial, non-sexist harmony and goodwill that was beamed into their living-rooms held out more hope for South Africa than many of the parties could offer. In Thailand, privately-owned newspapers gave crucial support to democracy in the free elections of 99 and went on to bring public opinion to bear on making politicians accountable and endorsing the rule of law. In 1996 the first non-government television station began broadcasting, with an emphasis on news and documentary output. Radio became even more daring in giving a voice to alternative views – to the extent that even the state media began to change. Sadly, such freeing-up of the media can be short-lived.In 1990, for the first time, two non-political appointments were made to the chairmanships of the state television and radio corporations of one central European country – and for two and a half years its broadcast media were actually among the most independent anywhere in Europe. It didn’t last: by 993 the government had won a ‘media war’ which removed their autonomy. It’s also ironical that, in the same country, some dissident publications which were actually tolerated in the later stages of communism have since been forced to close under the financial pressures of the new free-market economy. If the media lay claim to freedom of expression in the public interest, it follows that they must in turn conduct themselves ethically and responsibly if that reedom is to be justified (see Appendix A, Section 1). If they don’t, there will be many forces at large only too ready t o take their freedoms away. It’s also important to persuade politicians that media coverage is most effective when it starts from the audience’s point of view, not from the establishment’s. I was once in an Asian country when the government announced a plan to ensure that all its children should be immunised against polio – a marvellous initiative which deserved universal recognition. So how did the state broadcaster deal with it? By covering a press conference at which the minister extolled his government’s (admirable, I repeat) enlightenment.But what did the audience really need to know about the innovation? If you start from their point of view, you get quite a different order of priorities. What’s important to 1 them is: n The nature of the danger n What immunisation will do for your child n It’s universally available n It’s free n It’s safe n It’s painless (oral, not injection) n Here’s where to get i t. The Americans have a good term for this kind of information: news you can use. Politicians (who often don’t really understand how the media work) can be slow to realise that it’s an approach which would win them more accolades among their people than any amount of PR posturing.We practitioners need to work constantly to sell these messages. Whats the Media Game? 3 Media Legislation, Regulation & Governance 19 Media institutions Since the framework within which we work largely determines what we can and can’t achieve as managers, it’s worth considering the pros and cons of different systems. Designing a framework within which the media operate is a multi-layered process. Some elements will need to be specified in primary legislation; others may be delegated to an independent regulator with devolved statutory powers; media operators themselves will have their own internal codes of practice; and professional bodies may also endorse codes of ethics and sta ndards.One way or another, the framework needs to cover, essentially: n Media governance n The registration of media outlets n The licensing of media outlets (including licence fees) n The ownership of media outlets – particularly foreign- and cross-ownership n Licence award procedures n Licence compliance procedures n The regulation of media practice n Legal constraints on the disclosure of information be governed by regulatory codes which can be readily amended as circumstances change. An act of parliament, for instance, might establish the basic principle of observing acceptable standards of taste and decency but it’s the regulatory body’s code of practice which would interpret this broad intent in terms of the specific use of images, language or techniques. The regulator can then amend the rules in the light of experience without having to refer the matter back to government. Regulatory bodiesThis principle of regulation at arm’s-length from governmen t is also a safeguard against the media’s becoming a tool in the direct control of politicians: an aspect of the ‘separation of powers’ principle which is crucial in democracies. In Britain, politicians (of all parties) will from time to time fulminate against some perceived transgression by the BBC; but, historically, the minister responsible for broadcasting (again regardless of party) has always replied that the BBC is not a government agency, that he or she doesn’t exercise direct control over it and that the complainant should take the matter up with the BBC’s own (independent) Board of Governors. The Board of Governors has therefore acted as a ‘buffer’ between politicians and media practitioners: it has made the BBC a selfregulating body. In many parts of the world this is an alien concept.While working with British colleagues in one country-in-transition, we were told unequivocally by a minister that, if he’d had his way, we’d never have been invited to give advice: ‘I’d have chosen Primary legislation The media scene is developing at an extraordinary pace. Any system therefore needs to be flexible enough to accommodate rapid change without the need for the constant revision of primary legislation. So instruments such as broadcasting acts should do no more than establish the institutions and embody fundamental principles; their detailed application should 20 Broadcasters’ Media Management Manual someone from South-east Asia, where they know how to make the media serve the government’s interests. I also remember talking with the Minister of Information in a West African country who was under pressure from his fellow politicians to ‘stop the media doing what they’re doing’. With remarkable enlightenment – and bravery – he was trying to wean his colleagues away from the expectation of media manipulation and towards a culture in which th e government should expect to make its case to the people alongside alternative views. Sadly, he went in the next coup. A consultancy report on the state broadcaster in the same country showed how damaging political interference could be: Two factors are militating constantly against true professional independence: the formal relationship with the government and the limitations of resources, which are also funded by the government.These are having profound distorting effects, both editorially and financially. The country’s FM radio service is already proving an attractive vehicle for advertisers and has the potential to mitigate some of the financial problems. But government interference means that the organisation is not in full control of its own airwaves and cannot therefore plan its schedule for maximum audience-effectiveness. So, if there is a political requirement to carry at length a live event like a party rally, there are consequences both for the editorial balance o f the output and for revenueearning capacity. The regulatory system for commercial broadcasting is usually different from hat of the public services. In Britain, the government has delegated the overseeing of the industry to an independent regulatory institution – OFCOM, the Office for Communications, which governs the entire communications sector, including telephony and spectrum management (as does AGCOM in Italy) – with statutory powers to award broadcasting licences and to police the conduct of the operators. Again, regulation isn’t seen as a direct function of the state. But the British system is in the process of significant change. There has long been a view that it’s unacceptable for the Board of Governors both to govern the BBC and to sit in judgement on its performance.The BBC has therefore already been made answerable to OFCOM for a number of regulatory issues and that list is growing; the BBC has since re-constituted its Board of Governors as a more independent Trust. Many voices in the industry see this as no more than a holding measure and the beginning of the end of the Board of Governors concept. There are arguments that there should now be a single common regulator for all broadcasting outlets, whether publicly-funded or commercial, so that everybody is obliged to work to the same standards and be held to account in the same way. This would require the internal role of the BBC Governors to be fulfilled by non-executive directors sitting on a single corporation board, as with any other enterprise.That argument is becoming increasingly persuasive in a changing media world and this manual suggests that it offers a sound regulatory model which can be applied in most contexts. One of its advantages is that it can ensure equity of treatment for the three tiers of broadcasting – public, 21 commercial and community. (In South Africa, commercial and community broadcasters successfully lobbied the regulator to impose o n the SABC detailed public-service obligations which would reduce what they saw as unfair competition on their territory. ) Registration and licensing There can be no real objection to the principle of registering media outlets: the requirement to register a newspaper, for instance, can hardly be described as an interference with the freedom of the press.Indeed, it’s right that members of the public should be able to identify the owners and publishers of a newspaper – if only to know whom to sue if they think they’ve been mistreated in its pages. Registration is accepted pretty well universally. But it should be a right as well as a duty – not liable to refusal or withdrawal at the discretion of politicians or officials and not requiring periodic renewal. The licensing of newspapers is quite a different matter. Because it places the ultimate control of periodicals – and therefore of what they report and how they comment on it – in the hands of the licenser, it is indeed potentially a denial of press freedom.The only real purpose I can see for granting such licences is to have the power to revoke them and so, under that threat, to keep the media compliant and subdued. Because there’s no finite spectrum for the publishing of printed matter (as there is with broadcasting), the argument for ‘rationing’ a scarce resource isn’t sustainable. In fact, in most democracies, the licensing of printingpresses disappeared two hundred years ago. But in countries like Malaysia and Singapore the right to print newspapers and periodicals is still granted only by government permit – and the permit may be withdrawn if the government doesn’t like what the media are printing. Broadcasting does present a different case.We might say that a free press should be constrained only in the same way that a private citizen is constrained: by common laws governing issues such as libel, slander, contempt of cour t, trespass, copyright and so on. But the allocation of broadcasting frequencies is determined by international agreements among governments and it’s therefore not only reasonable but also essential for those governments to have mechanisms for controlling their domestic allocation. While, in principle, any citizen might have access to a printing-press, access to the airwaves still requires a ‘gatekeeper’. In a development context, the media have a vital role to play in educating the public, making people aware of their rights, encouraging participative democracy, exerting pressure for enlightened governance and exposing wrongdoing. 22Broadcasters’ Media Management Manual Though, as we’ve seen, digital technology is making a vast multiplicity of outlets technically possible, many economies will be unable to sustain unregulated commercial competition on a very large scale – certainly if there is to be any concern for diversity, quality and publ ic service. This has already been seen in some Balkan states, where political change was accompanied by a headlong rush to set up literally hundreds of commercial stations in countries with tiny populations and a very low GDP. Needless to say, the advertising market couldn’t support this volume of output and many of them didn’t last long.On the commercial front, there are those who argue that’s fine: a free market should indeed be left to find its own level. Few countries-in-transition are likely to agree that such an approach will meet the real needs of their people – particularly of the poor. In a development context, the media have a vital role to play in educating the public, making people aware of their rights, encouraging participative democracy, exerting pressure for enlightened governance and exposing wrongdoing. The development of regulatory and licensing systems in some countries of the former Yugoslavia was also able to mitigate tendencies to u se the airwaves to inflame ethnic hatred.Universality, independence and diversity are key to this concept of public service. Indeed, a colloquium conducted by the New Delhi Centre for Media Studies concluded that: The official media, increasingly market- and consumer-orientated, are out of tune with the values needed to promote broadbased human development. Development communication is most effective when practised as part of social action locally, rather than delivered top-down by media professionals. And here’s another quote from a media conference: The country needs a non-profit information consortium which would provide the kind of information that society needs but which commercial broadcasting is not providing †¦..The gaps which need to be filled are in education, public issues, culture, the arts and children’s programming. A contribution from a country in the developing world? No: in fact the views of an American delegate commenting on the media scene in th e United States. (There’s more about how to ensure you’re really in tune with your audience in Chapters Six and Eight. ) A market-driven commercial sector alone is therefore, for quite understandable reasons, unlikely to meet all the needs of a society, whether rich or developing. So it’s right that there should be a system for awarding broadcasting licences and ensuring that any public-service requirements in the terms of the licence are delivered.It should be clear that what’s being licensed is the provision of a specified service, not just the use of a specified frequency (though that service may, of course, be devoted entirely to sport or to entertainment, if that’s what you want; the classic definition of public-service broadcasting is, after all, that it should ‘inform, educate and entertain’). How should the licences be awarded? Not directly by a ministry, we should maintain, but by that independent regulatory body operating at arm’s-length from government. 23 In most contexts, a straightforward tendering system for granting licences will be perfectly appropriate; but the process must be open, transparent and representative of the public interest. It’s therefore also right that the terms of the licence should be properly demanding.We should expect them to include at least: n Commercial ownership of the broadcasting organisation n Frequencies allocated n Transmission coverage to be achieved n Technical standards n Nature of the service and minimum hours of transmission by programme category n Minimum percentage of locally-produced programming n Minimum percentage of programming commissioned from independent producers (if relevant) n Maximum minutes of advertising material per hour n Compliance with the regulatory codes of practice n Mechanisms for dealing with complaints For multiple-channel distributors such as cable companies there may also be what’s known as a ‘must-carryâ€⠄¢ requirement: that their ‘bundle’ of services must include certain specified channels.This is usually applied to ensure that there’s a free-to-air public-service element in the total offering. programmes and its treatment – it should always be a non-governmental body which is responsible for monitoring and judging performance. So, in most cases, it will make sense to entrust both kinds of activity to the same independent body. It’s important too that, as well as dealing with compliance and the ethical responsibilities of the media, the regulatory body may be given a duty to protect their freedoms and to speak out when they come under threat, from whatever source. Independent regulatory bodies How should such a body be set up and the members of its governing board appointed?Ultimately, even if indirectly, this is bound to be a function of government or, preferably, of some kind of cross-party mechanism. But there are ways of ensuring that the nomin ees are not just politicians’ cronies or political placemen. In some countries, vacancies on regulatory bodies have to be advertised and, in principle, anybody may apply and selection is overseen by an independent public appointments commission; that’s the UK’s system. In others, particular interest groups (industry, trade unions, religious bodies, arts organisations, the education sector and so on) may have the right to nominate candidates; that’s the case in Germany.And South African law requires the members of its Independent Communications Authority to have ‘suitable qualifications, expertise and experience in the fields of, among others, broadcasting and telecommunications policy, engineering, technology, frequency band planning, law, marketing, journalism, entertainment, education, economics, business practice and finance’. Compliance with licence terms In ensuring compliance, it may be that the quantitative aspects of the licence terms (the elements which can be measured objectively and aren’t matters of judgement – such as transmitter coverage, hours broadcast, percentage of local programming and so on) could be ensured by a government agency. But in qualitative matters – the content of 2 Broadcasters’ Media Management Manual A tall order, you may think.But even when the appointments have ultimately to be endorsed by a minister, such measures may at least ensure that the regulator is broadly representative of society in general. Under the South African system it is parliament, rather than the government, which oversees the appointments process. Appointments are also made on a rotating basis – so avoiding ‘clean-sweep’ change at politically sensitive times such as the run-up to elections – and the regulator’s independence is constitutionally assured; legislation limits ministerial powers to broad policy directives (which must be published) and exclude s any government involvement in particular licensing decisions.All of this challenges ‘the Ministry of Information mentality’. In other countries, even where the transplanting of patterns of parliamentary government and elections have established a formal framework of legitimacy – as in some South-east Asian countries – the habits and attitudes required for a healthy civic culture and true participatory democracy have often remained undeveloped. The regulatory body will, of course, also need a team of professional full-time staff to implement policy on the ground. They are likely to require regular reports and returns on quantitative compliance and may sample-monitor output or conduct spotchecks on qualitative matters, both editorial and technical.And there will usually be an annual assessment meeting at which the broadcaster will be held to account for its overall performance. responsibility not only for awarding licences but also for ensuring compliance with their terms. Unless with this responsibility comes the power to impose sanctions on transgressors, the regulator will be a toothless creature. The government should therefore also delegate to the regulator the power of applying sanctions: for instance, to admonish broadcasters, to require them to broadcast corrections and / or apologies, to fine them, to suspend their licences – or even ultimately to revoke a licence altogether. (A commercial broadcaster in Britain was once cautioned for a breach of the productplacement rules.A second flagrant violation of the code brought it a fine of ? 00,000. More recently, a broadcaster was fined more than ? 1 million for the fleecing of viewers during a phone-in competition. ) But the more extreme penalties should seldom, if ever, need to be invoked, if only because of the broadcasters’ instincts for self-preservation. The regulator will probably draw up more than one code with which broadcasters must comply if they’r e to retain their licences. There’s likely to be, for instance, a technical code and a code governing advertising practice. But the most vital will be the programme or editorial code, which embodies the rules by which the station’s day-to-day output will be judged.Provided that broadcasters have in place proper systems for ensuring compliance with the codes (such as the principle of ‘referring up’ – see page 82), they can be a powerful shield in the face of criticism, whether from governments or from other sources. Appendix A suggests how such a programme code might work. It’s not an example from any single source but a compilation and a distillation of sound principles from several Regulatory codes The regulatory body has devolved to it the 2 The regulatory body has devolved to it the responsibility not only for awarding licences but also for ensuring compliance with their terms. Unless with this responsibility comes the power to impose san ctions on transgressors, the regulator will be a toothless creature. contexts – both from regulatory instruments and from broadcasters’ own internal codes of practice.Nor is it a formula for universal application: any such code must be drawn up with proper sensitivity to the culture of local society. But it’s not a bad summary of the kind of standards to which we should, as professionals, aspire. The acknowledgement of cultural differences is essential – and this isn’t an issue only between (as it’s often now presented) the Muslim and the nonMuslim world. Western nations too have their own taboos and nuances of acceptability. American programmes have often to be adapted for transmission in Britain because of what’s seen as excessively violent content; on the other hand, American audiences tend to have a rather more prudish attitude to sexuallyexplicit content than do Europeans.In its coverage of a terrorist bomb incident, Italian tele vision felt able to show much more horrific illustration of the carnage than did British television – though both had access to exactly the same footage. At an educational television conference (admittedly some years ago now), the Danish delegation showed a teenage sexeducation programme which addressed menstruation in a frank and open way. The broadcasters from Southern Europe, including Bavaria – and also, interestingly, those from Israel – said at the time that it would be impossible for them to transmit such a programme to schools. Repeatedly, the model code emphasises the need to protect children from inappropriate, manipulative or potentially corrupting material.Some regulators aim to achieve this by imposing a mandatory ‘watershed’ in the schedule – a time (usually around 2:00) before which all broadcast material should be suitable for family viewing and listening but after which more ‘adult’ treatments are acceptable. Su ch a watershed is likely to be variable at times of rapid social change. Some would argue that, in the video age, it’s also become unrealistic. Many primary school teachers can tell horror-stories of how even very young children have been able to view at home material they would never be allowed to see in a cinema. Again, this is a matter which has to be resolved within the local context, with on-air warnings where appropriate. Editorial freedom and disclosure Day-to-day editorial management is covered  Broadcasters’ Media Management Manual in Chapter Eight. But there are two aspects with legal implications which we should consider here. The first is the disclosure by the media of ostensibly confidential information which they acquire through leaks. The model code in Appendix A makes it quite clear that leaking is generally done not by the media but to the media, often by politicians themselves (or by companies, or whatever) or by their representatives. Any entity wit h a vested interest may quite sensibly want to keep some of the information it possesses under wraps and to invoke sanctions against employees who leak it. But maintaining that ecurity is their responsibility, not the media’s. If such information should come the way of the media, it’s their role in civil society to disclose it for public consideration in the public interest (think of Watergate). This principle was well put by one of the most famous editors of The Times, John Thaddeus Delane, as long ago as 82: The first duty of the Press is to obtain the earliest and most correct intelligence of the events of the time and instantly, by disclosing them, make them the common property of the nation †¦.. The Press lives by disclosures; whatever passes into its keeping becomes a part of the knowledge and history of our times.In countries with strong freedomof-information laws, such as the Scandinavian countries, the United States, Australia and New Zealand, this prin ciple is clear and explicit and is a significant enabler of investigative journalism. On the other hand, a law such as Britain’s Official Secrets Act of 1914 (passed as a panic measure, with little debate, in the run-up to the First World War) made even the possession of restricted official information a criminal offence. Effectively, it allowed a journalist to be imprisoned simply for doing his or her job. That’s not, we should maintain, an appropriate use of the criminal law. The second issue is the protection of sources. In some countries (in Sweden, for example) media practitioners are protected by law from being compelled to reveal the sources of their information.But almost everywhere, even without such legal protection, they accept a moral and professional obligation not to disclose a source when they’ve given their word not to do so. Journalists have gone to prison rather than betray this confidentiality: in 2005 in the United States a federal judge jail ed Judith Miller for refusing to confirm the source of leaked information in the Plame case; in 2006 Lance Williams and Mark FainaruWada were sentenced to 8 months for contempt of court for a similar refusal in a case involving alleged drug-taking by professional athletes. Without that assurance – and the confidence that it will be honoured – much journalism in the public interest would be impossible.Lord Denning, when he was Britain’s most senior appeal-court judge, put it like this: If the press were compelled to disclose their sources they would soon be bereft of information which they ought to have. Their sources would dry up. Wrongdoing would not be disclosed †¦.. Unfairness would go unremedied †¦.. Misdeeds in the corridors of power – in companies or in government departments – would never be known. 2 (Please note that these are the words of a senior member of the judicial establishment, not of some wild-eyed, gung-ho media revolu tionary. ) The case-history on page 37 gives an example (from India) in which investigative journalism discovered serious criminal activity, exposed it in the public interest, enabled the criminals to be brought to justice and initiated significant improvements in health-safety practices. Media ownershipThe media are an industry and media development is a global phenomenon. Driven by technology and the market, media industries are everywhere proliferating, fragmenting, combining and diversifying. No country can insulate itself completely from these trends. And, indeed, foreign ownership can bring important inward investment to the country, in the media as in other fields. In some countries it may also provide some guarantee of media freedom. There can clearly be no universal formula for what degree of foreign ownership is acceptable or desirable but any limitation should certainly be included in the terms of the licence; 15% to 20% is a common figure.The terms should also ensure th at foreign ownership should not traduce the interests, culture and heritage of the host country. More than one government has sold off the seed-corn of its frequency spectrum to foreign providers, only to see the local audience sold short. When television was first launched in Fiji, the government granted the New Zealand company TVNZ a monopoly for twelve years of its only terrestrial channel. In a small developing country, the broadcaster’s rigorously commercial plan was, unsurprisingly, based on low capital investment, minimum operating expenditure and a high level of low-cost imported programming from Australia and New Zealand.Locallyproduced programming accounted for only 0% of the output and there was no adaptation even of international commercials for local audiences. There was nothing at all underhand in any of this: it was all clearly spelt out in the business plan which the government accepted, But local dissatisfaction with the service lasted for many years. Cross- media ownership is another matter. It would self-evidently be unhealthy for democratic pluralism if a single provider were to own, say, all the major newspapers and all the radio and television outlets in any country. Restrictions on such crossownership are clearly in the public interest and should be part of the terms of the licence; again, 20% is a common limitation.Indeed, there’s a good case for setting the permitted levels in the primary legislation. The funding of broadcasting This is another area in which the tectonic plates are shifting. Public-service broadcasting is generally funded through a statutory levy on households equipped to receive its transmissions. There are many ways of collecting this fee. In Britain, viewers have to purchase a licence by mail, at a post-office or on-line. They may pay it by instalments; but, if they own or rent a television set, they must have a licence even if they never watch the public-service channels it funds (the publicly-funded radio services are free). Not to pay is actually a criminal, not a civil, 2 Broadcasters’ Media Management Manual ffence. The licence fee is thus effectively a regressive poll-tax – though one to which, historically, there’s been little public resistance. That may soon change. Other countries use different methods of collection: in France it’s now added to the annual bill for local property taxes; in Macedonia it’s an addition to the monthly electricity bill. In other countries, as in Australia, it comes in the form of a government grant paid for through general taxation. In most countries public-service broadcasters are now subject to hybrid funding, whereby a proportion of their income comes from public sources but much of it has to be raised commercially.Hybrid funding can lead to tensions between public and purely commercial broadcasters when it leads the former to chase ratings and revenue at the latter’s expense: allegations of unfair ly-subsidised competition and a dilution of the public-service mission are very common. In the United States, the stations of the Public Service Broadcasting channel supplement their core income by seeking, through energetic on-air campaigns, free-will donations from the people of the communities they serve. Commercial broadcasting has a wider range of funding options. Historically, the most common source has been advertising revenue, derived from selling air-time for commercials in slots between and during programmes across the schedule.The proliferation of outlets is inevitably diluting this as a source of income. And, as technology enables viewers to ‘skip’ the commercials if they want to, it provides a less and less secure income stream. Another source is sponsorship, when an organisation pays to have its product or identity associated with a programme or with a broadcast event. Sponsorship too is going through a process of change. Whereas, in the past, it was regar ded almost as the equivalent of a donation, it’s now much more aggressively brand-orientated. In the future, as the market fragments, it’s likely to shift its emphasis even more closely to the individual consumer.An area of some controversy is product placement when, rather than buying advertising air-time, an advertiser pays to have the product included prominently within the editorial content of a programme; it’s long been an accepted practice in feature films. For years, ‘undue prominence’ of this kind has been prohibited by broadcasting regulators (and by self-regulating public-service broadcasters); but the new ability of viewers to evade the commercial breaks is making such placement an attractive alternative – and probably unstoppable, at least within fictional and entertainment formats. It should, however, have no place in news and current affairs programmes, where it would clearly jeopardise editorial independence. Then there is subs cription, where a viewer or listener pays a monthly fee for access to a specified ‘bundle’ of channels which are otherwise encrypted and so unobtainable.An alternative (or a supplement) is pay-perview, whereby the consumer accesses and pays for only the individual programmes he or she wants; this can also be used for video-on-demand services. And then there is the internet, initially used by broadcasters only as a supplementary service to their main channels but now increasingly a production and distribution medium in its 29 own right. As with newspaper web-sites, most internet broadcasting is still free to the consumer, as it’s seen as a spin-off from the core business – even if it costs the supplier a great deal of money. At present most providers mitigate those costs by selling advertising on the website but we may well see new kinds of subscription and pay-per-view extended to these services too.Nor should we forget the programmes themselves as sources of funding. Through co-production, several broadcasters may contribute to the production budget in return for the right to transmit the result. It gives the participants access to formats and scales of production they couldn’t individually afford. Programme sales of completed productions to other broadcasters can also provide a significant revenue stream for high-volume producers and there may also be a market for retail sales to the public of cassettes or DVDs. The use of premium telephone lines in audience-participation formats such as phone-ins can generate a useful supplement to mainstream income, as can SMS messaging.Small local stations may also compete – or even collaborate – with the local press in classified advertising (‘small-ads. ’). Where programmes – particularly longrunning series – attract large audiences, merchandising can be a significant revenue-earner. Apart from recordings of the programmes themselves, spin-off pr oducts such as tie-in books, toys and games can thrive on the publicity generated by the original broadcasts. Branded products promoting the identity of a broadcaster or a channel can also increase consumer awareness, particularly if they are distributed as part of a presence at public events. The governance of media organisationsIf we assume a single, common regulatory body for all broadcasting (see page 20), there’s no reason why public-service and commercial broadcasters shouldn’t also adopt a common kind of corporate structure, based on normal company practice. This requires that there should be a board of directors and an executive (or board of management). A public-service broadcaster will usually operate under some form of charter and licence; a commercial company will have its own memorandum and articles of association within which the board must operate. The directors effectively constitute the company and are legally responsible for its conduct. They approve its strategy, assure its financial viability, oversee the work of the executive and are answerable to stakeholders for the company’s performance; but their role is essentially to set policy, not to micro-manage the operation.In the case of a commercial company, their prime responsibility is to the shareholders who have funded the company and who expect a return on their investment; in the case of a public-service operator, it’s to th